Introduction Less than two months after Scotland voted to remain part of the United Kingdom, the Spanish region of Catalonia is pressing ahead with a non-binding vote on independence on November 9 despite objections from Madrid With its own language and a recorded history of more than 1,000 years, Catalonia is Spain’s wealthiest region and among the most independent-minded ------------------------------------------ 1. Origins. 9th-10th centuries Catalonia’s origins lie in the counties formed by Charlemagne to establish a buffer zone (Marca Hispanica) between his Frankish Empire and the Arab-ruled Iberian peninsula The Count of Barcelona, Guifré el Pilós (Wilfred the Hairy) c.840-897, whose descendants governed Catalonia until the 15th century, asserted independence from the Franks by extending his rule over other Catalan counties. Full independence came in 988 when Count Borrell II refused to swear fealty to the Frankish king ------------------------------------------- 2. Catalan language. 9th-15th centuries Catalan, in use by the 9th century, evolved like other local languages from spoken Latin. The Homilies d’Organyà, a collection of sermons from the 12th century, constitute one of the oldest known documents in Catalan Catalan developed into a distinct literary tradition with the works of 13th century philosopher Ramon Llull. At its height, Catalan literature produced such masterpieces as Tirant lo blanc (1490), a novel of chivalry described by Cervantes as “the best book in the world” -------------------------------------------- 3. Catalonia-Aragon. 1137 In 1137, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, was betrothed to Peronella, then the infant Queen of Aragon, bringing both territories under the control of the House of Barcelona for the next 273 years The marriage led to the creation of the Crown of Aragon, but Catalonia retained its own laws and customs, and the Corts – one of the oldest parliaments in the world -------------------------------------------- 4. Maritime empire. 13th-15th centuries The most renowned of the medieval kings of Aragon, Jaume el Conqueridor (1213-76), captured Mallorca and Valencia from the Arabs and initiated the Catalan-Aragonese expansion in the Mediterranean which was to reach its zenith in the last decades of the 14th century The Consulate of the Sea, one of the oldest compilation of maritime laws in the world, became the code that ruled transactions in the Mediterranean for many years --------------------------------------------- 5. Castile and Aragon. 1469 In 1469, the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile united two powerful realms and laid the foundations of the Kingdom of Spain The “Catholic Monarchs” ruled as one, introducing the Inquisition and completing the Reconquista with the defeat of the last Muslim emir of Granada. But Castile and Aragon (and Catalonia, within the confederation of the Crown of Aragon) remained separate states, each with its institutions, courts, laws, and separate coinage -------------------------------------------- 6. Discovery of America. 1492 The discovery of the New World heralded the beginning of Spain’s overseas empire and the opening of new territories and treasure – primarily for Castile, which had a monopoly on trade and colonisation in the Americas The shift of commercial activity from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic marked the decline of Catalonia’s economic and political importance ------------------------------------------- 7. Reapers’ War. 1640-59 With much of Europe embroiled in the Thirty Years War, Spanish King Philip IV ordered Catalonia to provide money and manpower for the war against France Catalonia erupted in revolt and declared a republic under French protection, but Spanish troops soon regained control. Catalonia’s autonomy was preserved but Philip ceded Catalan territories north of the Pyrenees to France in the peace treaty of 1659 ------------------------------------------- 8. War of Spanish Succession 1705-14 Spain’s throne became vacant in 1700 with two rival claimants; Philip V of the French House of Bourbon, and Charles III, Archduke of Austria. Catalonia backed Charles, who was supported by an anti-French alliance of Austria, Great Britain, and the Netherlands The Allies withdrew in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht, leaving Catalonia under siege by Franco-Castilian troops. After 14 months, Barcelona fell on September 11, 1714. Philip V abolished the Catalan State and all its liberties ------------------------------------------ 9. Economic revival and political turmoil. 18th-19th centuries Catalonia’s economic recovery began in the late 18th century, as the opening of trade with the Americas in 1778 provided a market for its textiles But the Napoleonic Wars between France and Spain in the early 19th century began a new period of turmoil. In 1812 Napoleon briefly annexed Catalonia to France, before French troops withdrew from Barcelona in 1814 under an armistice signed with Britain’s Duke of Wellington ------------------------------------------ 10. Renewed sense of Catalan identity. 19th century Catalonia, at the forefront of industrialisation in Spain, experienced the Renaixença (renaissance) – the start of a romantic revivalist movement in Catalan language and culture, embodied most notably in the work of architect Antoni Gaudí The Renaixença laid the foundations of Catalan nationalism, while the hard-pressed working class became radicalised, discovering socialism, and occasional bouts of violent anarchism ------------------------------------------ 11. Unity recovered. 1913 Catalan nationalism found one of its earliest political expressions in the Regionalist League, a conservative party founded in 1901. In 1913 its leader, Enric Prat de la Riba, became the first president of the Commonwealth of Catalonia – a limited joint self-government of the four Catalan provinces The Commonwealth was suppressed by the dictatorship of Spain’s General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1925 ------------------------------------------ 12. Republican victory. 1931 On April 12, republicans won a landslide victory in Spain’s municipal elections. The Second Republic was proclaimed, and King Alfonso XIII went into exile. In Catalonia, Francesc Macià, charismatic leader of the left-wing party Esquerra Republicana (ERC), proclaimed the short-lived Republic of Catalonia Three days later, the establishment of an autonomous government, the Generalitat, was agreed with the central government ------------------------------------------ 13. Spanish Civil War. 1936-39 In July 1936 a right-wing nationalist revolt, led by General Francisco Franco, sparked the Spanish Civil War. Catalonia was a key Republican stronghold and the fall of Barcelona in 1939 marked the beginning of the end of Republican resistance in Spain Published in 1938, George Orwell’s Homage to Catalonia – a memoir of his time fighting with left-wing Republican forces, foreshadowed the causes of the Second World War ------------------------------------------ 14. Dictatorship. 1939-75 Franco’s victory signalled the beginning of a 40-year fascist dictatorship and the suppression of political opposition as well as Catalan autonomy, language and culture Thousands of Catalan activists went into exile or were executed. Lluís Companys, President of the Generalitat, was captured in France and handed over by the Gestapo to Franco, who had him executed by firing squad in 1940 ------------------------------------------ 15. Mass migration. 1960s The renewal of diplomatic relations with the U.S. and liberalisation of state controls led to an economic boom known as the “Spanish Miracle”. Catalonia benefited from the arrival of mass tourism and increasing industrialisation, with Barcelona attracting large numbers of migrants from other regions of Spain Opposition to Franco grew more assertive and drew widespread support. The regime intensified its repression as its decline became clear ------------------------------------------ 16. Democratic transition. 1975-80 Franco’s death in 1975 began Spain’s transition to democracy under the new king, Juan Carlos. General elections in 1977 restored a provisional Generalitat, headed by Josep Tarradellas, and paved the way for a new statue of autonomy in 1979. Spain’s new Constitution, approved in 1978, recognised the existence of distinct national communities within Spain and initiated a devolution of power to all 17 “autonomous communities” ------------------------------------------ 17. European integration. 1980-2003 In 1980, the centre-right moderate nationalist Convergence and Union (CiU) group, led by Jordi Pujol, won the first elections to the new regional parliament, becoming the dominant political force in Catalonia over subsequent decades CiU supported minority Spanish governments over major issues like accession to the European Union, and adoption of the euro. Barcelona made its mark on the world stage with the 1992 Olympic Games ------------------------------------------ 18. New Statute overturned. 2006-10 In 2006, a reformed version of Catalonia’s autonomy statute, giving the regional government greater powers and describing Catalonia as a “nation”, came into force However, in 2010 the Constitutional Court in Madrid struck down key provisions in response to a complaint by the opposition centre-right People’s Party, ruling that there was no legal basis for recognising Catalonia as a nation ------------------------------------------ 19. Barça makes history. 2009-10 Under local hero, coach Pep Guardiola, FC Barcelona became the first football club ever to win six out of six competitions in a single season Historically, Barça has been a repository of Catalan nationalist aspirations, to the point that Barcelona writer Manuel Vazquez Montalban famously called it “Catalonia’s unarmed symbolic army” ------------------------------------------ 20. Independence drive intensifies. 2012 More than 1.5m people took part in Catalonia’s annual independence rally in Barcelona, amid growing anger over the economic crisis gripping the country. Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy rebuffed a call by Catalonia’s president Artur Mas for greater fiscal independence Snap local elections in November resulted in 107 out of 135 MPs in the new Catalan parliament supporting a referendum on self-determination ------------------------------------------ 21. Referendum. 2014 On the 300th anniversary of the end of the 1714 siege of Barcelona, President Artur Mas signed a decree calling for a non-binding referendum on independence to take place on November 9 Following a request from the Spanish government, which calls the vote illegal, the Constitutional Court suspended the referendum. Catalonia’s leadership insists that the vote will go ahead